Endogenous Ghrelin Levels and Perception of Hunger: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Abstract

ABSTRACT Background: Ghrelin is an orexigenic hormone primarily released by the stomach and has 2 isoforms: acylated ghrelin (AG) and de-acylated ghrelin (DAG), that appear to have different functions in humans. Objectives: To perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between plasma concentrations of total ghrelin (TG), AG, and DAG and perceptions of hunger in healthy adults. Methods: The following criteria were used for inclusion: 1) sample contained adults 18 y of age, 2) body mass index [BMI kg/m2 ] was 18.5, 3) ghrelin was sampled through blood, 4) subjective hunger was measured on a validated scale, 5) study reported a Pearson product correlation of ghrelin or had relevant figure(s) for data extraction, 6) participants were healthy with no overt disease, 7) protocols contained no physical activity or weight loss medication that suppressed appetite, 8) interventions were conducted without environmental manipulations. Moderators assessed were age, BMI, percentage of body fat (%BF), macronutrient content of test meals, energy intake (kcals), sex, and ghrelin isoform (AG, DAG, or TG). Results: The analysis included 47 studies (110 trials, n ¼ 1799, age: 31.4 12.0 y, BMI: 26.0 4.75 kg/m2 ) and measured AG (n ¼ 47 trials), DAG (n ¼ 12 trials), and TG (n ¼ 51 trials). The overall model indicated that ghrelin concentrations and perceptions of hunger were moderately correlated (r ¼ 0.43, P < 0.001), and ghrelin isoform significantly moderated this relationship (AG: r ¼ 0.60, P < 0.001; TG: r ¼ 0.215, P ¼ 0.01; DAG: r ¼ 0.53, P ¼ 0.695). Other significant moderators included age (b ¼ –0.02, P ¼ 0.01), BMI (b ¼ –0.03, P ¼ 0.05), % BF (b ¼ –0.03, P ¼ 0.05), energy intake (b ¼ 0.0003, P ¼ 0.04), and percentage of carbohydrates of test meals (b ¼ 0.008, P ¼ 0.05). Conclusions: Ghrelin is associated with perceptions of hunger in humans, and this relationship is strengthened when AG is isolated; thus, AG may have a large impact on hunger signals in various populations. Future research should attempt to understand the role of DAG in hunger sensations. Keywords: hunger, appetite, ghrelin, gut hormones